POSTSCRIPT
circa 1998
Introduction
THE FIRST EDITION OF THIS BOOK COVERED THE POST-STALIN
HISTORY OF THE SOVIET UNION UP TO THE EARLY 1980s.
THIS FIRST EDITION DEMONSTRATED THAT THE SOCIAL SYSTEM
WHICH HAD BY THEN COME INTO EXISTENCE IN THE SOVIET UNION
FOLLOWING THE 'ECONOMIC REFORMS' OF 1965-66 WAS A STATE MONOPOLY
CAPITALISM, DOMINATED BY HEAVY INDUSTRIAL CAPITAL,
IN WHICH THE CAPITALIST CLASS EXPLOITED THE WORKING CLASS.
IN THIS SOCIAL SYSTEM, THE COMMUNIST PARTY FUNCTIONED
AS A FASCIST-TYPE PARTY WITHIN A FASCIST-TYPE STATE, AND WAS THE
PRINCIPAL POLITICAL INSTRUMENT BY WHICH SOVIET HEAVY INDUSTRIAL CAPITAL
MAINTAINED ITS DOMINANT POSITIOM IN THE ECONOMY -- CONCEALING
THE REAL BASICALLY CAPITALIST CHARACTER OF SOVIET SOCIETY BENEATH
THE FALSE TRAPPINGS OF PSEUDO-SOCIALISM.
IN FACT, THE LAST
PERIOD OF THE EXISTENCE THE SOVIET UNION, AFTER 1980, WAS
CHARACTERISED BY A STRUGGLE BETWEEN TWO -- LATER THREE - MAJOR SECTIONS
OF THE NEW CAPITALIST CLASS - MANIFESTING ITSELF IN THE FORM OF A STRUGGLE
BETWEEN TWO -- LATER THREE -- MAJOR REVISIONIST POLITICAL GROUPINGS.
THE FIRST MAJOR POLITICAL GROUPING,
CLOSELY LINKED AT FIRST WITH THE
COMMUNIST PARTY APPARATUS,
REPRESENTED THE THEN DOMINANT HEAVY INDUSTRIAL WING OF SOVIET
CAPITAL.
SINCE THIS GROUPING FAVOURED THE RETENTION OF
THE PDEUDO-SOCIALIST FACADE ON WHICH THEIR DOMINANCE OF THE ECONOMY
DEPENDED, IT WAS OFTEN PORTRAYED AS A 'CONSERVATIVE'
GROUPING. IT WAS HEADED BY
YEGOR LIGACHEV,
WHO BECAME IN MAY 1983 LEADER OF THE CENTRAL COMMITTEE'S DEPARTMENT
FOR ORGANISATIONAL WORK, AND GENNADY YANAYEV,
WHO BECAME A MEMBER OF THE POLITBURO OF THE CENTRAL COMMITTEE
OF THE CPSU IN JULY 1990 AND VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE USSR IN DECEMBER 1990.
THE SECOND MAJOR POLITICAL GROUPING REPRESENTED
OTHER WINGS OF SOVIET
CAPITAL TOGETHER WITH FOREIGN CAPITAL.
SINCE THIS GROUPING FAVOURED 'FREE ENTERPRISE' AND
A 'DEMOCRATISATION' OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM' WHICH
WOULD PERMIT THEM TO BREAK THE DOMINANCE
OF THE STATE BY THE FIRST POLITICAL GROUPING, BUT RETENTION
OF A CENTRALISED FEDERAL STATE STRUCTURE, IT WAS OFTEN PORTRAYED
AS A 'RADICAL' OR 'REFORM' GROUPING. IT WAS HEADED
BY MIKHAIL GORBACHEV, WHO
BECAME A SECRETARY OF THE CENTRAL COMMITTEE OF THE CPSU WITH RESPONSIBILITY
FOR AGRICULTURE IN NOVEMBER 1978, A MEMBER OF THE POLITICAL
BUREAU OF THE CC OF THE CPSU IN OCTOBER 1980, GENERAL
SECRETARY OF THE CPSU IN MARCH 1985 AND STATE PRESIDENT IN OCTOBER 1988.
AS WILL BE DEMONSTRATED, IN
THE AUTUMN OF 1990 THE SECOND MAJOR POLITICAL GROUPING SPLIT INTO TWO.
Naturally, in the 1980s each of the political
groupings within the CPSU still felt it expedient to
claim that it, an] it alone, was pursuing
a Marxist-Leninist political line. For example, at the 28th Congress of
the CPSU in July 1990 Yegor Ligachev:
"firmly rejected the charge of conservatism, which he
said derived from his 'uncompromising stand on genuine socialism'.
. . Ligachev was highly critical of the reintroduction of private
ownership, declaring scornfully that this was hardly 'the last word in
socialist theory'"
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37.615).
Again, in March 1988 the newspaper 'Sovietskaya Rossiya'
(Soviet Russia) published a letter from a Leningrad teacher, Nina
Andreyeva,
"defending the leadership of Marshal Stalin and sharply
criticising Mr. Gorbachev's policies as too liberal. It was alleged that
publication of the letter had been personally endorsed by Mr. Yegor Ligachev".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 34; p. 36,111).
In April 1988, 'Pravda' published a full-page reply to Andreyeva
's letter attributed to Aleksandr Yakovlev,
who became a Secretary of the Central Committee in January 1987 and
a member of the Politburo of the CC of the CPSU in June 1987, and who:
"after Gorbachev's rise to power, 1985, became his most
trusted aide".
(Jeanne Vronskaya & Vladimir Chuguev: 'Biographical
Dictionary of the Former Soviet Union'; London; 1997; p. 185).
Later in April 1988, 'Sovietskaya Rossiya' declared in an
editorial that:
"publication of Andreyeva 's letter had been a mistake".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 34; p. 36,111).
The 'Period of Stagnation'
1982-85
In October 1980, Aleksei
Kosygin resigned as Prime Minister (a post had held since 1964)
and from the Political Bureau of the CC of the CPSU. He was succeeded
as Prime Minister by Nikolai Tikhonov.
Kosygin died in December 1980.
Leonid Brezhnev
died in November 1982, and was succeeded as General Secretary
of the CPSU and as state President by Yuri Andropov,
who had been head of the state security service (the KGB) from 1967 to
1982. Andropov died in February 1984 and was succeeded
as General Secretary of the CPSU by Konstantin
Chernenko. Chernenko died in turn in March 1985.
The period from 1980 to 1985 was one
in which the first political grouping was dominant, so that
the 'reform' process was held up; it
was a period in which 'economic reform' was checked, it was a period in
which:
"The Kosygin reforms had been effectively sabotaged by
Party officials and central economic managers."
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 43Oc).
And so was:
"without any major new initiatives".
('Keesing's Contemporary Archives', Volume 31; p. 33,536).
It was also a period of:
"economic slowdown. . . . By the time of Brezhnev's
death in November 1982, the USSR was in headlong decline."
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica', Volume 28; Chicago;
1997; p. 1,017).
Indeed, the late 1970s and early 1980s were later characterised
by Gorbachev as:
"The 'era of stagnation'".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430d).
The Gorbachev Period
1985-89
In March 1985 Chernenko was succeeded as General
Secretary of the CPSU by Mikhail Gorbachev.
The Gorbachev period - from 1985
to 1990-- became one in which the second
political grouping was dominant. Gorbachev's first year
in office was:
"Characterised by sweeping personnel changes in the Party
and government".
('Keesing's Contemporary Archives', Volume 32; p. 34,367).
since, as soon as he came to office, Gorbachev:
"moved rapidly to consolidate his personal power".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430e).
He:
"replaced a large number of leading state and CPSU
officials".'
('The Europa World Year Book: 1997', Volume 2;
London; 1997; p. 2,755).
largely under the guise of a:
"campaign against corruption and inefficiency."
('Keesing's Contemporary Archives', Volume 31; p. 33,536).
which:
"concentrated on removing officials remaining from the
Brezhnev regime.,"
('Keesing's Contemporary Archives', Volume 33; p. 34,951).
In July 1985, on the nomination of Gorbachev, Andrei
Gromyko was 'promoted'
"to the (largely ceremonial) post of Head of State,"
(Jeanne Vronskaya & Vladimir Chuguev: op. cit.; p.
175).
i.e., State President. He was succeeded as USSR
Minister for Foreign Affairs by the Georgian Eduard
Shevardnadze, who:
" was a staunch supporter of Gorbachev".
(Martin McCauley: 'Who's Who in Russia from 1900';
London;l 1997; p 186).
Grigory Romanov,
who was:
"one of Gorbachev's main rivals",
(Jeanne Vronskaya & Vladimir Chuguev: ibid.; p. 438).
was in July 1985:
"removed from all his posts with rumours of
alcoholism and corruption emerging everywhere." (Jeanne Vronskaya
& Vladimir Chuguev: ibid.; p. 438).
In September 1985, Gorbachev:
". . pushed . . . aside",
(Martin McCauley: op. cit.; p. 206).
Tikhonov as Prime Minister, he being:
a supporter of 'economic reform' who had been a member of
the Politburo of the CC of the CPSU since April 1985.
In December 1985, Viktor
Grishin, a leading member of the first (Ligachev/Yanayev)
grouping
"known as 'the Moscow Godfather";
(Martin McCaulkey: ibid.; p. 98).
was dismissed as First Secretary for Moscow City, and succeeded
in the post by a supporter of economic reform', Boris
Yeltsin.
At the same time:
"Aleksandr N. Yakovlev, Gorbachev's closest adviser,
came to prominence.
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430e).
By June 1987, Gorbachev had:
"managed to make Yakovlev a full member of the Politburo".
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica', Volume 28; Chicago;
1997; p. 1,020).
Gorbachev also:
"launched a purge of the military, appointing Dimitri
T. Yazov the new Defence Minister". ('Encyclopedia Americana',
Volume 27; Danbury (USA); 1992; p. 430e).
In June 1987, Yazov had been promoted to the rank of Army
General in February 1984 and had been Commander of the Far Eastern Military
District from June 1984 to November 1986.
At the 27th Congress of the CPSU in February/March 1986,
"there were wholesale changes. . . . About
52% of the newly elected Central Committee were new appointees."
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica', Volume 28; Chicago;
1997; p. 1,020).
while
"military representation declined sharply".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430e).
Later, in April 1989,
"a decisive CC Plenum saw the removal of 110 old-guard
members of the CC and the promotion of 24 reformist candidate members to
full membership''.
('Encyclopedia Americana , Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430e).
Criticism of Brezhnevism : 1986-88
The Gorbachev period was marked by criticism
of the Soviet leadership in the 1970s.
For example, at the 27th Congress of
the CPSU in February/March 1986, Gorbachev:
"attacked inertia and apathy under the 18-year leadership
of President Leonid Brezhnev".
('Keesing '5 Contemporary Archives', Volume 32; p. 34,367).
and in December 1986, an editorial in 'Pravda' accused Brezhnev:
"of fostering complacency and allowing the development
of 'negative processes' in the latter years of his rule. This was
the first public attack on Mr. Brezhnev's leadership in which he was mentioned
by name."
(Kessing's Record of World Events', Volume 33; p. 34,951)
Again, at a Central Committee Plenum in January 1987,
Gorbachev:
"renewed his attack on negative trends which had emerged
in the latter years of the leadership of the late President Leonid Brezhnev."
('Keesing 's Record of World Events', Volume 33; p. 34,949).
In February 1988, Lieutenant-General Yuri
Churbanov, the son-in-law of the late President Leonid
Brezhnev, who had been Deputy Chairman of the KGB in 1980-1984, was:
"arrested on suspicion of corruption and bribe-taking".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 33; p. 35,402).
and in December 1988 was:
"sentenced by the Soviet Supreme Court . . . to
12 years in prison for accepting bribes."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume)~4; p. 36,382).
In August 1988, it was decided that:
"Relatives of the late President Leonid Brezhnev were
to be stripped of 'undeserved' pensions and privileges".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 34; p. 36,067).
'Perestroika'
The agenda of the now dominant 'reform' Party grouping
included:
"'perestr,oika (economic 'restructuring'), 'demokratizatiya'
( 'democratisation' of Soviet society), 'glasnost' ('openness')".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430e).
'Economic reform' - a euphemism for measures
in the direction of restoring a fully capitalist economic system -- was
resumed even before the death of Chernenko, since during the Chernenko
period:
"Gorbachev was now in overall charge of the Soviet economy."
('Keesing's Contemporary Archives'. Volume 30; p. 32,866).
Thus, in August 1984,
"a memorandum calling for a fundamental restructuring
of the state economic management system' .
. was 'leaked' to Western journalists".
('Keesing 's Contemporary Archives'. Volume 31; p. 33,
474).
The memorandum argued that the system of centralised economic
planning set up during Stalin's lifetime:
"was now acting as a brake to further development, and
called for the abolition of 'a high degree of centralised decision-making"'.
('Keesing's Contemporary Archives'. Volume 31; p. 33,474).
In a report on economic policy delivered to a conference
in Moscow in June 1985, Gorbachev:
"hinted that the State Planning Commission (Gosplan)
might become more a policy 'think-tank' than a system for setting
specific economic goals".
('Keesing's Contemporary Archives'. Volume 31; p. 34,054).
In October 1985, a new economic programme for 1986-2000
was published, which:
"called for increased production of all consumer goods''.
('Keesing's Contemporary Archives'. Volume 31; p. 34,055).
At the January 1987 Plenum of the CC of the CPSU there were:
"harsh attacks on . . . central planning
. . and . Stalinism".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
~992; p. 430f-431).
At a Party Plenum called in June 1987 to discuss 'restructuring',
Gorbachev
"won endorsement of a radical economic programme designed
to establish 'market socialism' by 1991".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury
(USA); 1992; p. 430e).
He proposed:
"that central planning should be drastically curtailed
in favour of management autonomy in enterprises.. . The proposals on decentralisation
were endorsed by the Central Committee".
('Keesing 's Record of World Events', Volume 34; p. 35,842),
It was at this Plenum that the decision was taken for the:
"elimination of . . . price controls".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 34; p. 35,842),
and for:
"the removal of subsidies",
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 34; p. 35,842).
which meant:
"that unprofitable enterprises . .
would in future go bankrupt".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 34; p. 35,842).
In June 1988, a joint resolution of the CC of
the CPSU, the government and the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions:
"ordered the creation of a nationwide system for job
placement and retraining. Recently Soviet economists had been predicting
that as many as 16 million people could lose their jobs by the year 2000".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 34; p. 35,843).
In September 1988, the government approved the:
"granting of leases for up to 50 years. . . on farm land
. reversing collectivisation measures introduced under Stalin".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 34; p. 36,131).
At the beginning of August 1990, USSR President Mikhail Gorbachev
and Russian President Boris Yeltsin:
"agreed jointly to sponsor a commission of experts which
within one month would 'draft a concept for the transition to a market
economy."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,663).
The commission was headed by the economist Stanislav
Shatalin At the end of August 1990,
"Gorbachev and Yeltsin endorsed a plan produced
by the commission."
('Keesing' s Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,663).
In September 1990, the USSR Supreme Soviet granted Gorbachev:
"emergency presidential powers . . . to dictate the introduction
of economic reform by decree".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,721).
During October 1990,
"Gorbachev used his emergency presidential powers to
issue four decrees marking critical steps towards market reform".
('Keesing' s Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,787).
In March 1991, a presidential decree brought into force:
"a new pricing system which was designed to allow cuts
in price subsidies of around 60% in 1991". ('Keesing's Record of World
Events', Volume 37; p. 38,129).
In June 1991,
"Moscow city council decided . . to privatise its
housing's."
('Kessing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,273).
In July 1991, a bill on the:
"destatisation and privatisation of enterprises was passed
by the Supreme Soviet. . . The law envisaged the denationalisation
of 40-50% of state assets by the end of 1992, rising to 60-70% by1995".
('Keesing 's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,347).
Deputies opposing the bill were:
"led by Yegor Ligachev".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,347).
A Central Committee Plenum in July 1991 endorsed a new Party
programme entitled 'Socialism, Democracy, Progress', which:
"committed the Party to forming a 'controlled market
economy' (including the principle of private ownership)".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,347).
The Economic Effects of Perestroika
(1987-91)
The operation of perestroika
greatly worsened the economic situation in the Soviet Union.
For example, inflation
grew:
In March 1987, the:
"existence of inflation in the Soviet Union was officially
acknowledged for the first time . . . by the Central Statistical Board".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 34; p. 35,843).
"Prices between 1985 and 1988 increased by less than 1%
annually, but in 1989 they jumped 9.5% and in 1990 by 29%".
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica', Volume 28; Chicago;
1997; p. 1,022).
In April 1991:
"prices went up . . . by an average 60%".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,129).
The budget deficit grew:
"Traditionally the budget deficit had been 2-3% of GNP.
. . In 1986 the budget deficit rose to 6% of GNP. . . By. . . . (1988--
Ed.). the deficit had risen to more than 10%".
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica', Volume 28; Chicago;
1997; p. 1,022).
The country's hard currency debt
rose:
"from $25.6 billion at the end of 1984 to $80 billion
at the end of 1991. . . By 1989 the Soviets could no longer service
their hard currency debt on time."
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica', Volume 28; Chicago;
1997; p. 1,022).
Unemployment grew.
From July 1991:
"unemployment was officially registered in the Soviet
Union for the first time since 1930 (when Stalin declared that it had been
eliminated). . . The law . . . envisaged the creation of 2,000 labour exchanges.
Soviet economists were quoted as predicting 10 million unemployed
by the end of l991".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,348).
Rationing of staple foodstuffs
was introduced. In December 1990,
"rationing of staple foostuffs was introduced in
state shops."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,902).
Thus, under perestroika,
"the economy moved from stagnation to crisis, and this
deepened as time passed".
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica', Volume 28; Chicago;
1997; p. 1,022).
and by 1991,
"the economy was facing total collapse."
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica', Volume 28; Chicago;
1997; p. 1,022).
Glasnost : 1986-91
Under the slogan of glasnost ('openness'), in June
1986:
"censorship was loosened . . . and reformist editors
took over major periodicals".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430e).
In 1986 and 1987:
" most political prisoners were released".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430f).
In December 1986, the dissident scientist Andrei
Sakharov was released from internal exile in Gorky,
and his wife Yelena Bonner was
pardoned by decree. ('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 33;
p. 35,471).
and in November 1988, Sakharov:
"was elected to the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences
and authorised to travel abroad". ('Keesing's Record of World Events',
Volume 34; p. 36,259).
In October 1987, a branch of the Frankfurt-based 'International
Society for Human Rights' was formed legally in Moscow. ('Keesing's Record
of World Events', Volume 33; p. 35,472).
In May 1990, a sweeping new law was passed:
"banning political interference in broadcasting and permitting
newspapers to sue government agencies that withheld information.
. . Individual citizens would be allowed
to start newspapers."
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 431)
In August 1990, Gorbachev by decree revoked:
"decrees adopted between 1966 and 1988 which had deprived
a number of persons now living abroad of their Soviet citizenship".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36;
p. 37,663).
Among those named in the decree was the writer Aleksandr
Solzhenitsyn. In September 1990,
"a new law . . . forbade the state
from interfering with religious practices, improved the status of
religious organisations, and granted the right to provide religious instruction
in private schools. The law also barred the government from financing
. atheist propaganda".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 431).
'Democratisation' : 1985-91
Another key facet of Soviet policy under Gorbachev was
the so-called 'democratisation', the principal aim of which was to
reduce the power of the first (Ligachev/Yanayev) political grouping and
increase that of second (Gorbachev) grouping.
Already, at the19th (Extraordinary) Conference of the
CPSU in June/July 1988, Gorbachev spoke of:
"the need to make the process of 'Perestroika' (restructuring)
irreversible by reforming the political system."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 34; p. 36,003).
by the installation of:
"a new structure of state . . . bodies . . . and elections
to a new Congress of People's Deputies which would in turn elect an Executive
President".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 34; p. 36,003).
A Central Committee Plenum in July 1988 decided that:
"by the end of 1988 there would be multi-candidate ballots
for all Party Committee posts". ('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume
34; p. 36,116).
In December 1988,
"constitutional amendments were approved . .
. creating a Congress of People's Deputies (CPD). Two-thirds
of its members would be popularly chosen in multi-candidate elections,
the other third by social organisations, including 100 delegates by the
CPSU. The bicameral Supreme Soviet, to be elected by the CPB from its membership,
was . . . to run the nation's legislative affairs through an elaborate
system of standing committees. The new chairman of the Supreme Soviet was
to exercise wideranging powers."
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430e).
In April 1989, the revisionist historian Roy
Medvedey, author of 'Let History Judge', was:
"reinstated as a member of the Communist Party (CPSU)."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 35; p. 36,592).
An important aspect of 'democratisation' was the legalisation
of political organisations other than the Communist Party. By the spring
of 1989,
'informal' associations . . . numbered at least
60,000, and had an explicitly political hue".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430f).
Thus, elections to the new USSR Congress of People's Deputies,
held in March 1989, were the:
"first multi-candidate . . . elections since 1917, 20%
of the deputies chosen were non-Party candidates. .
. . Many Party leaders, although running without opposition, lost
by failing to win 50% of the vote."
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430e).
In particular, many 'conservative' candidates, supporters
of the first (LigachevlYanayev) grouping
" . . were defeated".
('The Europa Year-Book: 1997', Volume 2; London; 1997;
p. 2,755).
Yeltsin:
"won an overwhelming victory in the Moscow constituency".
('The Europa Year-Book: 1997', Volume 2; London; 1997;
p. 2,755).
At a Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU in April
1989, Gorbachev:
"secured another major victory in his efforts to remove
the threat of conservative opposition to his reform policies. The central
committee approved the 'retirement 'of 74 of its full members and
14 candidate members, many of whom were considered to constitute the 'old
guard' which had risen to power under the late President Leonid Brezhnev.
In addition, 12 out of the 82 members of the Party's central control and
auditing commission were removed. . . The Plenum promoted 24 people from
candidate to full central committee membership".
('Keesing's Record of World Events1, Volume 35; p. 36,592).
In May 1989, the USSR Congress of People's Deputies:
" . elected the new Supreme Soviet."
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430f).
Like its predecessor,
"the new Supreme Soviet was to consist of two chambers,
known as the 'Soviet of the Union' and the 'Soviet of Nationalities'. Each
chamber was to comprise 271 deputies, elected by the Congress from
among its own members."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 35; p. 36,660).
The new Supreme Soviet:
"elected Gorbachev to the post of . . . President of
the USSR''.
('The Europa Year-Book: 1997', Volume 2; London; 1997;
p. 2,755).
However, Yeltsin failed to secure election:
"to the 'Soviet of Nationalities'. But one of the 11successful
candidates stood down in his favour." ('Keesing's Record of World Events',
Volume 35; p. 36,660).
Also in May 1989, Anatoly Lukyanov:
"A close confidant of Gorbachev",
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 35; p. 36,660).
was elected:
"Vice-President".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 35; p. 36,660).
In July 1989, the 'Inter-Regional Group' was formed
within the Congress of People1s Deputies:
"Around 300 radical deputies met to establish an independent
group within the Congress of People's Deputies which would be dedicated
to accelerating perestroika (restructuring) and to 'countering the pressure
put on parliament by conservative forces".
('Keesing 's Record of World Events', Volume 35; p. 36,824).
The Inter-Regional Group was:
"under the leadership of Yeltsin".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430f).
These developments were reflected in a
steep decline in the influence of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union,
from which:
" large-scale resignations shook morale".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430f).
Furthermore,
"the leadership of several republican Parties bolted
from central control".
('Encyclopedia Americana'1 Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430f).
and:
"the authority of the Politburo and Secretariat of the
CPSU was diminished".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430f).
The revisionists' programme of 'democratisation' included
a movement to abolish the
'leading role' of the Communist Party laid down in Article
6 of the Soviet Constitution, and to abolish the democratic centralism'
laid down in the Party Constitution. A Plenum of the Central Committee
in February 1990 was:
"preceded by mass street demonstrations and by the formation
of . . the 'Democratic Platform of the CPSU', which called for .
. . an end to democratic centralism within the CPSU. The Plenum also
approved plans to drop Article 6 and gave its support to Gorbachev's proposal
to establish a new post -- an executive presidency of the Soviet Union".
(Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA); 1992;
p. 430f).
In March 1990, the USSR Congress of People's Deputies:
"voted to introduce the new presidency and also
to eliminate Article 6";
('Encyclopedia Americana' Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430f).
thus the Party:
"Renounced its constitutionally guaranteed 'leading role'''.
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,787),
The new presidency:
"Had substantial prerogatives, including the right to
nominate the premier and other top officials, to veto legislation,
to propose dissolution of the government, and to rule by decree."
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 430f).
In October 1990, a law:
"denied the state the right to propagaste atheism, or
otherwise interfere in religious affairs."
('Keesing' s Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,788),
In December 1990, the USSR Congress of People's Deputies
approved further constitutional changes which:
"Gave President Milkhail Gorbachev executive powers
more extensive than those of any previous Soviet leader".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,902),
Foreign Policy: 1985-91
The foreign policy of the Soviet Union during the Gorbachev
period was based on seeking friendly -- even
subservient -- relations with the West in order to encourage foreign investment
in the Soviet Union.
Gorbachev:
"aided by Shevardnadze, set out to end the 'new Cold
War' that had broken out in the late 1970s".
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica', Volume 28; Chicago;
1997; p. 1,023).
Under Gorbachev,
"the Soviet Union undertook several unilateral
initiatives, including in 1985 a freeze on the deployment of SS-20 missiles
in Europe and a moratorium on all underground testing, a proposal to eliminate
all nuclear weapons by the year 2000, and substantial cuts in military
spending and troop numbers beginning in 1989, including plans to reduce
the Soviet armed forces by 500,000 over two years."
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1997; p. 433).
Thus, after 1985:
"the deterioration of US-Soviet relations was reversed".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1997; p. 433).
and:
"cultural and scientific exchanges proliferated".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1997; p. 433).
In January 1987, the Soviet government approved a procedure
whereby Soviet enterprises were permitted to create:
"Joint enterprises in the Soviet Union with the participation
of organisations and firms from Western and developing countries."
('Keesing 's Record of World Events', Volume 33; p. 35,019),
The first Reagan-Gorbachev summit
This:
"took place in Geneva in November 1985. A joint statement
proposed a 50% reduction in the superpowers nuclear arsenal. . .
One of the agreements reached at the Geneva summit
concerned the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan. The last soldier
left in February 1989". ('New Encyclopaedia Britannica', Volume 28; Chicago;
1997; p. 1,023).
The third Summit, in Washington in December 1987:
"produced an agreement to eliminate a whole category
of nuclear weapons: land-based intermediate and shorter-range missiles.
This was the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (IFN) Treaty, formalised
by Reagan and Gorbachev at their final summit in Moscow in May/June 1988".
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica', Volume 28; Chicago;
1997; p. 1,028).
In July 1989, Gorbachev:
"explicitly renounced the use of military intervention
in the affairs of Eastern Europe",
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1997; p. 433).
"thus nullifying the Brezhnev doctrine".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1997; p. 433).
After the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq in August 1990:
"the USSR went along with UN sanctions, restored diplomatic
relations with Saudi Arabia, and exchanged consulates with Israel".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1997; p. 434).
Not surprisingly, in October 1990:
"Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1997; p. 434).
Also in October 1990, Gorbachev used his emergency powers
to issue a decree which:
"granted foreign investors (individual or corporate)
the right to set up in the Soviet Union a 100% foreign-owned enterprise
or to buy a shareholding in existing Soviet enterprises.
. . Repatriation of profits would be
possible".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,787).
In January 1991, Ryzkov suffered a heart attack and resigned
as Prime Minister, to be succeeded by Valentin Pavlov, who had been USSR
Minister of Finance from July 1989 to January 1991.
In February 1991, Prime Minister Valentin Pavlov:
"stressed that his government 'stands for cooperation
with the West and will encourage foreigners to own up to 100% of
businesses'".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,012),
Also in February 1991,
"a meeting of the political and consultative committee
of the Warsaw Treaty Organisation . • • signed
a protocol cancelling the validity of all military agreements, organs and
structures of the Warsaw Treaty".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,026).
In May 1991,
"the first official and public indication that the Soviet
Union was seeking large-scale Western aid came at a press conference between
Gorbachev and Italian Prime Minister Giuho Andreotti. .. .
when Gorbachev made plain his desire to attend the July G-7 meeting."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,272),
In July 1991,
"Gorbachev and US President George Bush signed the Strategic
Arms Limitation Treaty (START), which cut back, not merely limited, their
countries' long-range arsenals".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1997; p. 435).
The Soviet General Staff opposed the policy of detente:
"and became bolder in its opposition as time passed".
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica', Volume 28; Chicago;
1997; p. 1,023).
In July 1991,
"the Warsaw Pact was disbanded".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1997; p. 435).
Under Gorbachev, the Soviet Union collaborated with international
financial organisations. For example, in July 1991:
"the Soviet Union made public its intention to apply
for full membership of the IMF and the World Bank".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,348).
The Split in the 'Radical' Revisionist
Grouping : Autumn 1990
IN THE AUTUMN OF 1990, DIVERGING INTERESTS WITHIN
THE SOVIET CAPITALIST CLASS WERE REFLECTED IN A POLITICAL SPLIT
WITHIN THE SECOND ('RADICAL') REVISIONIST GROUPING.
ONE SUB-GROUPING, HEADED BY MIKHAIL
GORBACHEV, REPRESENTING PRIMARILY THE INTERESTS OF THE LIGHT
THE INDUSTRIAL WING OF SOVIET CAPITAL. BECAME KNOWN AS THE 'RADICAL'
GROUPING.
ANOTHER SUBGROUPING, HEADED BY BORIS
YELTSIN, REPRESENTING PRIMARILY
THE INTERESTS OF AN ALLIANCE OF RUSSIAN CAPITAL
WITH FOREIGN IMPERIALIST CAPITAL, BECAME KNOWN AS THE 'ULTRA-RADICAL
GROUPING'.
THE MOST IMPORTANT POLICY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
THE TWO SUBGROUPINGS WAS THAT THE FIRST (GORBACHEV)
SUB-GROUPING WISHED TO RETAIN A FAIRLY TIGHT FEDERAL
STATE STRUCTURE FOR THE SOVIET UNION, WHILE THE SECOND (YELTSIN)
SUBGROUPING WANTED TO SUBSTITUTE A MUCH LOOSER CONFEDERAL STATE STRUCTURE.
IN ORDER TO STRENGTHEN ITS ROLE RELATIVE TO
THE FIRST AND SECOND SUBGROUPINGS, THE THIRD (YELTSIN)
SUBGROUPING ADOPTED THE STRATEGY OF WORKING TO STRENGTHEN THE
ROLE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION (THE RSFSR) RELATIVE TO THAT OF THE SOVIET
UNION AS A WHOLE.
The Movement to strengthen
the Role of Russia March 1990 - July 1991
The Brezhnevite leadership of the CPSU had:
"quietly pursued the goal of Russian dominance of the
country. . . . Russian was vigorously promoted . . . as the language
of learning and intercourse. Russian publications expanded and non-Russian
were cut back. No attempt was made to encourage the some 24 million Russians
living outside Russia to learn the local language of their area. Only 0.2%
of these Russians claimed mastery of the local tongue in 1989. .
. The emphasis on Russian was clearly linked to the alarming
demographic trends, where the net annual increase in the population of
the USSR was almost entirely Muslim.
In the CPSU Politburo there was a marked preference for
Russians. In 1980 among the leading 150 functionaries in the Central
Committee apparat, only three were non-Slav. There were also only three
non-Slavs among the top 150 military personnel".
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica', Volume 28; Chicago;
1997; p. 1,018).
The RSFSR Congress of People's Deputies, which convened in
May/June 1990,
"elected Yeltsin as Chairman of the Supreme Soviet (the
permanent working body of the Congress). This was the highest state
post in the RSFSR, and a position from which Yeltsin could effectively
challenge the authority of Gorbachev and the all-Union institutions which
he represented. . On 12 June (1990-- Ed.) the Congress
adopted a declaration of sovereignty, asserting that
the RSFSR was a sovereign republic anD that the laws of the RSFSR had primacy
over all-Union legislation.. . The institutions that Russia had lacked,
including a trade union organisation, a journalists' union, an academy
of sciences and national cultural organisations, began to be established.
In 1991 a radio and television broadcasting network, controlled by the
Russian Government (and largely pro-Yeltsin in its political stance) began
broadcasting."
('The Europa Year Book: 1997'. Volume 2; London; 1997;
p. 2,755).
The election of Yeltsin as chairman of the Russian Supreme
Soviet was effected:
"despite Gorbachev's bitter opposition".
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica', Volume 28; Chicago;
1997; p. 1,021).
There followed
"the establishment of a republican branch of the KGB
(Committee of State Security -- Ed.) under the jurisdiction of the RSFSR".
('The Europa Year Book: 1997'. Volume 2; London; 1997;
p. 2,755).
By the autumn of 1990,
"Mikhail Gorbachev and his advisers had backed away completely
from 'shock thereapy' for the economy".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,537).
and in October 1990 the USSR Supreme Soviet approved another:
"outline programme to create a market ecnomic system".
('Keesing's Record of World Events' Volume 36; p. 37,786).
which was:
"a compromise between Stanislav Shatalin's . . proposals
and the more cautious plan produced by Prime Minister Nikolai Ryshkov."
('Keesing's Record of World Events' Volume 36; p. 37,786).
The search for a compromise
"angered supporters of the Shatalin plan".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,786).
Russian Federation President, Boris Yeltsin dismissed
it on 1 September as an attempt to:
" mate a hedgehog with a snake".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,721).
In September 1990,
"without waiting for a decision by the USSR Supreme Soviet,
the Russian Federation Supreme Soviet . . . adopted the Shatalin programme."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,786).
By:
"unilaterally adopting the programme, with its commitment
to wide-ranging economic sovereignty for the individual republics, Russia
placed itself potentially on a collision course with the USSR administration".
('Keesing' s Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,722).
Also in September 1990, the Russian Federation Supreme Soviet
"passed a vote of no-confidence in Ryzhkov 's goverment".
(' Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,722).
And the first (Ligachev/Yanayev) political grouping responded.
In mid-1990,
"a Russian Communist Party (RCP) was established, led
by Ivan Polozkov, a conservative communist opposed to Yeltsin."
('The Europa Year Book: 1997'. Volume 2; London; 1997;
p. 2,755).
For its part, the third (Yeltsin) intra-Party grouping responded
initiating the formation within the Russian Republic of:
"the 'Communists for Democracy' Movement, led by Rutskoi".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,347).
At a conference in August 1991, 'Communists for Democracy'
became 'Democratic Party of Communists of Russia' (DPCR), which:
"saw itself as in opposition to the conservative
RussianCommunist Party (RCP), and as aiming to replace it while remaining
part of the CPSU".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,347).
Under the pressure of the second (Gorbachev) grouping, the
CPSU:
"condemned the formation of the RCP as a 'party
within a party', declared its conference resolutions invalid."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,347).
And later, in August 1991:
"expelled Rutskoi from the Party".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,347).
The RCP was banned by Yeltsin in November 1991. (Martin McCauley:
op. cit.; p. 161).
In March 1991, when a referendum was held in nine republics
of the USSR to ask the public whether a restructured USSR should be retained:
"voters in the RSFSR . . . approved an additional question
on the introduction of a Russian presidency".
('The Europa Year Book: 1997'. Volume 2; London; 1997;
p. 2,755).
The result of these manoeuvres was the temporary establishment
of a dual power, with the Gorbachev revisionist
grouping dominating the non-Russian areas of the USSR and the Yeltin revisionist
grouping dominating the Russian areas, the RSFSR.
Russian presidential elections in June 1991:
"were won convincingly by Yeltsin and his Vice-President
Aleksandr Rutskoi, with 57.3% of the votes cast."
('The Europa Year Book: 1997'. Volume 2; London; 1997;
p. 2,755).
June 1991 also saw:
"the development of direct foreign links by the RSFSR,
by-passing the Soviet central authorities.
. . The importance of such links was stressed by Yeltsin during his visit
to the USA (on June 18-21) and on June 23 it was announced that Russia
was to have its own counsellor in the Soviet embassy in Washington and
to have its own representative at the Soviet UN mission."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,273).
The third (Yeltsin) intra-Party grouping now took the lead
in 'economic reform'. In June 1991,
"the Russian Federation government proposed the privatisation
of 70% of the republic's property and assets.
Privatisation was to be accomplished by a mixed system
of 'named cheques' given to every Russian citizen, who would be able to
redeem them for company shares of their choice, and by the handing over
of 30% of all shares in a privatised enterprise to the workforce. Under
the plan, sale of shares to third persons would be banned for three years,
but after that period could be bought and sold on the stock exchange"
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,273).
In July 1991, Russian President Boris Yeltsin:
"issued a decree . . . banning the activities
of all party political organisations from enterprises and government bodies
within the Russian Federation. The decree specified the precedence of government
bodies over the parallel system of CPSU administrative bodies.. . The CPSU
politburo called the decree 'an unconstitutional, anti-democratic
act"'.
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,347).
The Alliance of the First and
Second Political Groupings (1990-91)
Confronted by the growing power of the third (Yeltsin)
political sub-grouping, in November/December 1990 the second (Gorbachev)
political sub-grouping felt compelled to form a temporary tactical alliance
with the first (Ligachev/Yanayev) political grouping against the third
(Yeltsin) grouping. In other words, Gorbachev's position:
" shifted to the right".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,902).
He:
"adopted a series of conservative measures. He increased
the roles of the military and. the KGB; . . . placed
hard-liners in control of the police."
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 434).
These measures included:
"the replacement of the liberal Interior Minister, Vadim
Bakatin",
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,902).
after
"Calls for Bakatin's removal had been taken up . .
by the 'Soyuz' (Union) group of conservative deputies in the Congress".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,902).
Gorbachev appointed to succeed Bakatin, an adherent of
the first (Ligachev/Yanayev) intra-Party grouping, namely,
"Boris Pugo,
the ethnic Latvian chair of the CPSU central control commission and a major-general
in the KGB".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,902).
He also appointed another adherent of the first (Ligachev/Yanavtyev)
grouping:
"Col.-Gen. Boris Gromov,
the . . . former commander of Soviet forces in Afghanistan, as First Deputy
Interior Minister."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,903).
In December 1990, Gorbachev promoted another leading member
of the first (Ligachev/Yanayev) Political grouping, he:
"unexpectedly nominated Gennady Yanayev as Vice-President."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,903).
The New Union Treaty (1991)
In March 1990,
"the first secession crisis occurred . .
when the Lithuanian Supreme Soviet proclaimed independence. . . When
Lithuania refused to back down, Gorbachev deployed military force,
seized control of local law-enforcement agencies and announced an economic
boycott". ('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA); 1992; p.
432).
In April 1990, the USSR Supreme Soviet passed a new law:
"on 'Procedures for resolving Matters connected with
a Union Republic's Secession from the USSR. A republic might secede subject
to a referendum called by the republic's Supreme Soviet either on its own
initiative or in response to a petition signed by at least 10% of
USSR citizens permanantly resident in that republic. A vote
in favour of secession would be carried subject to a two-thirds majority
of the republic's total electorate. There would then follow a transitional
period of up to five years during which 'matters arising' would
have to be resolved".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,361).
In June 1990,
"the Lithuanian parliament agreed to withdraw the declaration
of independence as a precondition for negotiations with Moscow".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 432).
and in the same month:
"the USSR Council of the Federation established working
groups made up of representatives from the republics to draft a new Union
Treaty and scheduled an autumn 1990 session of the Supreme Soviet
for discussion."
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 433).
Discussion centred:
"on whether a federation or confederation should be established
(most delegates favoured a confederation)",
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 433).
this being a looser form of union than a federation.
In July 1990, the Ukrainian and Byelorussian Supreme Soviets
adopted declarations of sovereignty.
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 36; p. 37,616).
In November 1990:
"Gorbachev presented to the Supreme Soviet (standing
legislature) his long-awaited draft union treaty redefining the relationship
between the central government republics and the 15 union powers, which
would receive expanded. . powers".
('Encyclopedia Americanat1 Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 434).
Yeltsin responded:
"by putting forth the draft of a new, conflicting constitution
for the Russian Federation." ('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury
(USA); 1992; p. 434).
In January 1991,
"the Soviets used military force against pro-independence
groups in Lithuania and Latvia. Troops occupied key buildings and installations
in Vilnius and Riga, killing 19 protesters".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 435).
According to a referendum conducted in March 1991,
"76% of the population (on an 80% turnout) wished to
maintain the USSR as a 'renewed federation of equal sovereign republics".
('Statesman's Year-Book: 1997-1998'; London; 1997; p.
232).
In this referendum,
"six small republics boycotted the the polling, and three
of them -- Latvia, Estonia and Georgia -- held their
own referendums in which independence was approved".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 435).
In the Russian Federation, Yeltsin:
"urged a 'no' vote, insisting that the individual republics
must attain real sovereignty before deciding on union."
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 435).
In a broadcast on Radio Russia, he:
"complained that the real purpose of the referendum was
. . . to preserve the imperial unitary state."
('Keesing 's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,079).
Gorbachev's hope of signing the Union Treaty in time to present
to the G7 Summit in July 1991 were frustrated when the Ukrainian government
voted on 21 June 1991:
"to postpone debating the Treaty until Sept. 15, in order
to examine possible contradictions with Ukraine's declaration
of independence of July 1990".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; 38,349).
Also in July 1991. Gorbachev announced
"that after 12 hours of negotiations with delegations
from nine of the Soviet Union's fifteen republics, work on the draft Union
Treaty had been concluded.
The third draft of the Treaty, the most radical so far
in devolving powers to the Republics . . . stated that matters
of defence, foreign policy, energy, communications, transport and the union
budget, would be decided jointly between the centre and the republics,
but in all other matters republican law would have priority over union
laws. . . .
The USSR would drop the word 'socialist' from its title,
to become the 'Union of Soviet Soverign Republics'. Its President would
be directly elected. . . . There would still be a bicameral
Supreme Soviet. Within this, the 'Soviet of the Union' (elected by the
whole population from constituencies of equal population
size) would be subordinate to the 'Soviet of the Republic'; the latter
would be elected from the republican parliaments, retaining the same number
of seats as in the current 'Soviet of Nationalities'. . .
A Constitutional Court would judge disputes between the union and republics,
and between republics".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; 38,348-49).
The new Union Treaty was scheduled for signature on 21 August
1991.
The Attempted Coup : August
1991
ON THE MORNING OF 19 AUGUST 1991-- THE DAY BEFORE THE
NEW UNION TREATY
WAS TO BE SIGNED --LEADING MEMBERS OF THE FIRST REVISIONIST
GROUPING
WITHIN THE PARTY, HEADED BY VICE-PRESIDENT
GENNADY YANAYEV, ATTEMPTED TO SEIZE POLITICAL POWER IN A COUP:
"Tanks were sent on to the streets of Moscow and other
major cities."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,368).
A statement was issued by the official Tass news agency saying
that presidential authority had been transferred to Vice President Gennady
Yanayev,
"due to Mikhail Gorbachev's inability to perform his
duties for health reasons."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,368).
and that:
"a state of emergency had been introduced in (unspecified)
parts of the Soviet Union for six months to overcome 'the profound
crisis, political, ethnic and civil strife, chaos and anarchy that threaten
the lives and security of the Soviet Union's citizens' . .
Television and radio channels were restricted and only
seven conservative newspapers and 'Izvestia' (the organ of the Presidium
of the Supreme Soviet) were allowed to publish. .
Troops stationed themselves outside newspaper offices
and took over the transmission towers". ('Keesing's Record
of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,368, 38,369).
Among the named members of the 'State Committee for the State
of Emergency' (SCSE) were Gennady Yanayev (Vice-President), Valentin Pavlov
(Prime Minister), Vladimir Kryuchkov (Chairman of the KGB), Marshal
Dmitri Yazov (Minister of Defence) and Boris Pugo (Minister of Internal
Affairs). ('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,368-69).
At a press conference he gave on 21 August after the collapse
of the coup, Gorbachev asserted that a delegation:
"had visited him at his holiday dacha in the Crimea on
Aug. 18 and placed him under house arrest because he had refused to endorse
a state of emergency."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,369).
The Committee's statements:
"made no mention of socialism".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,369).
but declared that the coup had been carried out to prevent
the:
"''destruction of the unified machinery of the national
economy'".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,369).
Observers concluded:
"that a takeover was attempted because of the fear that
the Union Treaty, due to be signed on Aug. 20.
. would end the effectivecentral control of the country".
('Keesing' 5 Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,368).
A statement by Anatoly Lukyanov, Chairman of the Supreme
Soviet, dated the same day,
"criticised tbe Union Treaty for giving away too much
central power to the republics".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,368).
declaring that it:
"did not reflect the people's wish, as expressed in the
March referendum . . . to preserve the Soviet Union as a federation."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,369).
The Failure of the Coup
(August 1991)
However,
" the coup was poorly planned and executed".
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica1, Volumwe 281 Chicago;
1997; p. 1,023),.
and
"there were significant divisions among top military
and KGB officers."
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica', Volumwe 281 Chicago;
1997; p. 1,023),.
Indeed, a key factor in the failure of the coup was:
"the opposition of some of the armed forces".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,369).
headed by Air Force Commander Yevgeny
Shaposhnikov and Air Force Paratroops Commander Pavel
Grachev, both of whom were adherents of the third
grouping (Yeltsin) and:
"disobeyed the SCSE".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 36,369).
The coup was strongly opposed
by the second (Gorbachev) and third (Yeltsin) intra-Party groupings.
The personal opposition of Yeltsin was particularly strong; he:
accused the SCSE of 'treason' and called troops to obey
the RSFSR leadership. . . . On Aug.
19 he made a dramatic call for resistance, standing on one of the tanks
stationed outside the Supreme Soviet building".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,369).
On 20.August, there were:
"huge demonstrations in front of the Russian Federation
Supreme Soviet building, the 'White House'. . . In an
atmosphere of great tension . . Muscovites defied the curfew
in force from 11 p.m., remaining assembled in large numbers
to defend the 'White House' against a runoured impending attack by
pro-coup forces. They built makeshift barricades against tank attacks and
were reported to be forming 'defence units'. The building was also defended
by armed KGB units and police loyal to Yeltsin. . . . But the feared
attack on the building . . did not take place."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,369).
Thus, on the morning of 21 August:
"the Defence Ministry Collegium decided at a meeting
. . to withdraw the troops."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,369).
As a result:
"troops began withdrawing from Moscow and media restrictions
were lifted. . Press restrictions, imposed by what Tass called
the 'former' SCSE, were lifted and Russian Radio and Television resumed
broadcasting".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,370).
Later the same day:
"the USSR Supreme Soviet's Presidium declared the actions
of the SCSE illegal . . . and the Procurator-General's office announced
that criminal proceedings for high treason
had been instigated against members of the committee".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,370).
That evening Gorbachev was permitted to return to Moscow.
On 22 August, the KGB Collegium issued a statement saying:
"The staff of the KGB have nothing to do with the unlawful
acts of the group of adventurists". ('Keesing's Record of World Events',
Volume 37; p. 38,370).
The Aftermath of the Coup (August/September
1991)
THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE ATI'EMPTED COUP AND ITS FAILURE
LED TO A SIGNIFICANT CHANGE IN THE BALANCE OF POWER BETWEEN THE THREE OPPOSITION
SUB-GROUPINGS.
THE FIRST (YANAYEV/LIGACHEV) GROUPING HAD BEEN DECISIVELY
DEFEATED,
WHILE THE SECOND (GORBACHEV) SUB-GROUPING HAD BEEN VERY
SIGNIFICANTLY WEAKENED:
"During the coup, Gorbachev had lost much of his authority.
Boris Yeltsin, though nominally his subordinate as President of Russia,
was now a far more powerful politician."
(BBC2: 'Tsar Boris: The Yeltsin Years', 3 January 1992).
Indeed, Gorbachev was forced to:
"admit his own Ministers had led the coup plot against
him".
(BBC2: 'Tsar Boris: The Yeltsin Years', 3 January 1992).
and:
"was compelled by the increase in Yeltsin's political
standing and the fact that most state bodies were at least partially compromised
in the coup attempt, to acknowledge the need for a new state structure."
('Keesing 's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,368).
As early as 21 August, Yeltsin:
"was awarded additional powers . .
by the RSFRS Supreme Soviet, which strengthened his position vis-a -vis
Gorbachev".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,371).
On August 21 and 22:
"SCSE members were arrested. . Pugo committed suicide
on Aug. 21. Pavlov, who was reported to have developed high blood
pressure, was put under guard in hospital. . Lukyanov resigned as
Supreme Soviet chairman on Aug. 26 and was arrested on Aug. 29".
('Keesing 's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,371).
On 23 August:
"Gorbachev agreed to Yeltsin's demands that he sign decrees
confirming the measures undertaken by the RSFSR government during the coup,
thus making them constitutionally binding. A key decree of Aug. 23 transferred
all Union enterprises and natural resources on RSFSR territory to RSFSR
jurisdiction".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,371).
On 22 August,:
"Yeltsin announced that he had taken control of Soviet
armed forces on Russian territory and . . banned Party organisations in
them. He also . . banned newspapers which had only printed SCSE decrees,
dismissed the chairmen of TASS and Novosti (news agencies -- Ed.)".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,371).
at the RSFSR Supreme Soviet on the same day, Gorbachev was
compelled to agree:
"that the whole Cabinet should resign, and that
the new Prime Minister should be a Russian. This reflected Yeltsin's demands".
('Keesing's Record of World Events19 Volume 37; p
38,371).
while
"Yeltsin presented Gorbachev with a fait accompli at
the RSFSR Supreme Soviet, when . . he signed in front of him a decree suspending
the activity of the Russian Communist Party (RCP) 'pending
the investigation by juridical bodies of its involvement in all these events".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,372).
The Liquidation of the
Soviet Union (August/September, 1991)
On 24 August, Gorbachev:
"resigned as general secretary of the CPSU".
('Keesingls Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,368).
At an Extraordinary Session of the USSR Supreme Soviet on
26 August,
"Gorbachev admitted his responsibility for the coup in
having appointed conservatives to head the organisations which controlled
troops. and for 'liberalisation and indulgence', despite warnings of conservatives'
discontent".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,372).
On 28 August:
"a vote of no confidence in the Pavlov Cabinet as a whole
was passed formally . . by the USSR Supreme Soviet. .
. . The Cabinet, which had been in course of formation since March 1991
and was still not complete, was therefore dissolved".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,371).
Also on 28 August,
"Gorbachev removed the KGB leadership (Collegium), placed
KGB troops under the control of the Defence Ministry, and established a
commission to investigate KGB responsibility for the coup ".('Keesing'
s Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,372).
On 29 August,
"the CPSU's activity was suspended throughout the Soviet
Union on the mandate of the USSR Supreme Soviet. . .
CPSU bank accounts and financial operations were frozen".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,372).
By the end of August,
"14 people involved in the coup had been charged with
high treason".
('Keesing's Record of World Events' Volume 37; p. 38,371).
These events:
"touched off a a wave of declarations of independence,
which by October (1991 -- Ed.) had been made by all the union
republics except Kazakhstan and Russia . . . These actions.
. . rendered the yet-unsigned union treaty irrelevant."
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 436).
In September/October 1991, the 5th Extraordinary Congress
of People's Deputies met and:
"called for the signing of a treaty on a 'Union of Sovereign
States', adherence to which would be determined by the individual republics".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37;
p. 38,414).
In the same month,
"the Soviet Union recognised the independence of
Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 436).
In October 1991,
"the Congress of People's Deputies approved a plan .
. . for an interim USSR political tructure, pending the
revision of the constitution and the union treaty. The plan embodied
a sweeping transfer of power from the central government to the republics.
For the central government a State Council was created, chaired by
Gorbachev and including the presidents of the union republics.
. . . The Soviet cabinet was disbanded".
('Encyclopedia Americana', Volume 27; Danbury (USA);
1992; p. 476).
The congress:
"granted Yeltsin special powers for a period of one year,
including the right to issue decrees with the same force as legialation
adopted by the legislature, the right to appoint the leaders of local
administrations . . and the right to appoint government
ministers without parliamentary approval".
('Europa World Year Book 1997', Volume 2; : London; 1997;
p. 2,755).
In November 1991, a new Russian government was announced,
"With Yeltsin himself taking the office of Prime Minister".
('European World Year Book 1997'; Volume 2; London; 1997;
p. 2,755).
Also in November 1991, Russian President Boris Yeltsin:
"issued a decree . . . banning the Communist
Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) and the Russian CP and nationalising their
property".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,583).
In the same month, the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation:
"passed a law giving citizenship to Russians living outside
the borders of the Russian Federation. This would affect the estimated
26 million Russians in other Soviet and former Soviet republics". ('Keesing's
Record of World Events'1 Volume 37; p. 38,583).
and at a meeting of the State Council:
"agreement was reached on the abolition of all Union
Ministries, except for railways, atomic power and eletricity. The
question of the Ministries of Defence and Foreign Affairs was discussed
in closed session and their survival was subsequently decided".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,581).
After the meeting,
"it was announced that agreement had been reached on
forming a 'Union of Sovereign States', . . However, the
seven republican delegations which attended a further meeting on Nov. 25
refused to initial the Treaty".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,581).
On 7-8 December 1991, the Presidents of Russia, Ukraine
and Belarus (formerly Belorussia) held a secret meeting in Minsk (Belarus):
"They met secretly behind closed doors to decide the
fate of the largest country on earth".
(BBC2: op. cit.).
The meeting:
"decided to replace the Soviet Union by a loose confederation
of independent states. Yeltsin had achieved his goal. With no Soviet
Union, there'd be no job for Gorbachev".
(BBC2: ibid.).
Yeltsin secured the approval of the US government for the
decision, which was, as US President George
Bush remarked:
"in the best interests of the United States of America."
(George Bush: TV Interview: BBC2: ibid.).
but Soviet Prestient Mikhail Gorbachev was not informed.
As US Secretary of State James Baker said
in a televised interview:
"We found that President Gorbachev didn't know anything
about it".
(James Baker: TV Interview: BBC 2; ibid.).
When Gorbachev was eventually informed, he described the
decision taken as:
"contemptible".
(Mikhail Gorbachev: TV Interview: BBC2: ibid.).
The Minsk meeting issued a statement saying:
"The USSR, as a subject of international law and a geopolitical
reality, ceases to exist."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,654).
The Formation of the 'Commonweakth
of Independent States' December 1991
On 8 December 1991, at their meeting in Minsk, the three
Slav republics (Russia, Ukraine and Belarus),
"concluded an agreement . . establishing
a 'Commonwealth of Independent States' (CIS) with its headquarters in Minsk".
('Statesman's Year-Book: 1997-98); London; 1997; p. 33).
This would be:
"a loose alliance without central governing bodies".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,654).
On 21 December 1991,
"in Alma Ata a further declaration was signed by representatives
of the three original members and of eight other republics: Azerbaijan,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgystan, Moldova, Takikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan".
('Statesman's Year-Book: 1997-1998'; London; 1997; p.
33).
The Alma Ata declaration
"established a commonwealth of 11 states, leaving, of
the former Soviet republics, only Georgia and the three Baltic States outside
the new body. (Georgia subsequently joined the CIS in December 1993)".
('Europa World Year Book 1997', Volumew 2; Londopn; 1997;
p. 2,755).
Assurances:
"were given to the world community that single control
would be maintained over the nuclear weapons on former Soviet territory,
and that the treaty obligations of the Soviet Union would be respected
by thenewly independent states."
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,654).
On 25 December 1991,
"the President of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev,
resigned".
('Keesing's Record of World Events', Volume 37; p. 38,
654).
and:
"the Russian Supreme Soviet changed the name of the RSFSR
to the 'Russian Federation."
('Europa World Year Book 1997', Volume 2; London; 1997;
p. 2,755).
The Russian Federation:
"assumed the USSR's seat on the UN Security Council,
and all Soviet embassies became Russian embassies".
('New Encyclopaedia Britannica'1 Volume 28; Chicago;
1997; p. 1,024).
On 26 December 1991,
"the USSR Supreme Soviet voted a formal end to the treaty
of union that had been signed in 1922, and dissolved itself".
('Statesman's Year-Book: 1997-1998'; London; 1997; p.
33).
CONCLUSION
IT IS SOMETIMES SAID THAT THE LIQUIDATION OF THE
SOVIET UNION IN DECEMBER
1991-- SEVENTY-FOUR YEARS AFTER THE SOCIALIST REVOLUTION
OF NOVEMBER 1917 -DEMONSTRATES THE FAILURE OF SOCIALISM AND THE FAILURE
OF MARXISM-LENINISM.
BUT IT WAS NOT A SOCIALIST SOCIETY WHICH WAS LIQUIDATED
IN 1991.
AS HAS BEEN DEMONSTRATED IN THIS BOOK, THAT HAD BEEN
ACCOMPLISHED MANY YEARS BEFORE UNDER KHRUSHCHEV AND BREZHNEV.
WHAT WAS LIQUIDATED IN DECEMBER 1991 WAS A CAPITALIST
SYSTEM MASQUERADING AS 'SOCIALISM', BUT WITH ALL THE SOCIAL EVILS INHERENT
IN ANY CAPITALIST SOCIETY.
THE LEADERS OF THE SOVIET UNION FROM 1953 ONWARDS WERE
NOT MARXIST-LENINISTS BUT REVISIONISTS -- CAPITALIST POLITICIANS
MASQUERADING AS 'SOCIALISTS'.
THE STRENGTH OF SOCIALISM AS IT
EXISTED UNDER LENIN AND STALIN IS DEMONSTRATED BY THE FAILURE OF
ATTEMPTS TO DESTROY SOCIALIST RUSSIA OPENLY IN THE WARS OF INTERVENTION
AND TO DESTROY THE SOCIALIST SOVIET UNION OPENLY IN THE NAZI INVASION OF
THE 1940s.
INDEED, THE FACT THAT THOSE WHO ULTIMATELY BROUGHT ABOUT
THE LIQUIDATION OF THE SOVIET UNION COULD ONLY DO SO BY PRETENDING
TO BE 'SOCIALISTS' AND 'MARXIST-LENINISTS' TESTIFIES TO
THE STRENGTH OF SOCIALISM AND MARXISM-LENINISM,
NOT TO ITS WEAKNESS.
THE FACT IT TOOK ALMOST FORTY YEARS OF THIS PSEUDO-SOCIALIST
CAPITALISM, BEFORE ITS AUTHORS FELT IT SAFE TO ATTACK SOCIALISM
OPENLY IS SIMILARLY A
TESTIMONY TO THE STRENGTH OF SOCIALISM.
HISTORY SHOWS THAT THE CHANGE FROM ONE SOCIAL SYSTEM TO
A MORE PROGRESSIVE ONE, IS OFTEN NOT MERELY A LONG PROCESS, BUT A
PROCESS INTERRUPTED BY ONE OR MORE STEPS BACKWARD.
THE PEOPLES OF THE FORMER SOVIET UNION ARE LEARNING
BITTER LESSONS FROM THE BACKWARD STEP TAKEN BY THEIR COUNTRY:
FIRSTLY,
THAT ADHERENCE TO THE PRINCIPLES OF MARXISM-LENINISM, AND
REJECTION OF ALL REVISIONIST DEVIATIONS FROM THOSE PRINCIPLES,
IS ESSENTIAL FOR THE WORKING CLASS OF ALL COUNTRIES;
SECONDLY,
THAT THE WAY FORWARD FOR THE WORKING PEOPLE OF THE FORMER SOVIET UNION
IS TO REBUILD A GENUINE MARXIST-LENINIST PARTY FREE OF ALL REVISIONIST TRENDS,
TO WIN FOR THAT PARTY THE LEADERSHIP OF THE WORKING CLASS, AND
TO CARRY THROUGH A NEW SOCIALIST REVOLUTION WHICH WILL TAKE
FULLY INTO ACCOUNT THE LESSONS OF HISTORY.
___________________________________________________________________
Back to: Appendix 3: The Leningrad Affair.
Back to: Appendices 1 & 2.
For other works by Bill Bland see the CL site.